Research Paper Animal Experimentation Essay Example for Free

Research Paper Animal Experimentation Essay I Introduction Thesis Statement: Animal testing is a debatable issue in modern society. Some people argue that animal testing should be kept due to medical benefits and research study conveniences. However, I think animal experimentation should be banned by refuting supporters’ arguments. II Body A. Opposing argument 1 Animal experimentations are conducted for human health. Rebuttal to this argument: Animal testing can cause serious problems regarding to human health. a. The results of animal experimentation are often inconclusive and cannot be accurately applied to human. b. Animal drug testing causes a lot of dangerous side effects. B. Opposing argument 2 Animal experimentation is vital for research purposes. Rebuttal to this argument: Ethnics problems: Are humans too selfish? a. Animal testing can be extremely cruel and inhumane. b. Examples to illustrate the cruelly experiments conducted on animals. c. Animals deserve the equal rights as humans. C. Opposing argument 3 There are no effective alternatives to animal experimentation. Rebuttal to this argument: The facts of efficient non-animal methods and relevant benefits. a. Examples of successful alternative methods. b. Lists of possible technology as alternative methods. c. The benefits of non-animal methods. III Conclusion Animal Testing should be banned due to its cruelness, moral issues and the existence of effective alternative methods. Should Animal Experimentation Be Abandon? Animal Experimentation, also known as animal testing, is the use of animals to conduct experiments or do research in the laboratory. The number of animals used in experiments increased dramatically after World War II. Nowadays, animal experimentation is widely used in many areas such as medical research, behavior study, and drug tests. It is estimated that scientists in America utilize more than 15 million animals each year in their research. Also, animal research and testing is used in almost 10% of all biomedical research. (â€Å"Animal experimentation†, 2011, para.4 ) While some people insist animal experimentation is necessary for social progress due to its unique contributions to human health and scientific researches, opponents of animal research argue that it is cruel, immoral, and unnecessary. As a matter of fact, animal experimentation has been a controversy issue for a very long time. At the same time, there are an increasing number of regulations which restrict animal testing to some extent in order to protect animals’ rights. From my perspective, animal experimentation should be abandoned because of its inhuman cruelness, moral issues, and the existence of possible alternatives. The most common arguments supporting animal experimentation can be refuted and shown to be unnecessary harm to animals. There are many arguments to support animal experimentation. Supporters of animal testing assert animal experimentations are beneficial for human health and vital for research purposes. Also, supporters tend to believe that there are no effective  alternatives for animal experimentation. One of the most common opinions supporters of animal experimentation hold is that a lot of animal experimentations are conducted for human health. They assert animal testing is critical for drug development, the safety of cosmetic products, and treatment for diseases. For instance, Carl Cohen (2005), a professor of philosophy at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, argues that vaccines for diseases such as polio and malaria could not have been developed without animal testing (para.1). There is no denying that humans did benefit a lot from animal experimentations. People practice on dogs first to learn how to perform surgery successfully, test the toxicity of ingredients of shampoo on mice to ensure the safety of cosmetic products, and study the infected chimpanzees to study the virus effects. These actions seem to be reasonable. However, there are also plenty of problems of animal experimentation associated with human health are ignored by supporters. The results of animal testing are often inconclusive and cannot be accurately applied to human. â€Å"Many of the drugs approved through animal experimentation have proven dangerous to humans† (Thomas, 2008, para.3). The inner structure of human body is quite different from animals’. In fact, animal experimentation results cannot predict many common life threatening side effects of new products like drugs and cosmetics. Animal testing could be the reason that many so called â€Å"safety products† drugs which work perfectly on animals would cause so many dangerous side effects on human body. More seriously, it is possible for humans to suffer from allergic reactions, some blood disorders, skin lesions and many central nervous system effects that cannot be demonstrated by animal models (Singer, 2006). Most medications are derived from one big contradiction: Our government demands that we test all medications on animals prior to continuing to human trials, and it admits that applying animal data to humans is a leap of faith. However, animal drug testing cannot guarantee all the medications would apply to humans. Still, many human diseases go uncured. Besides human health perspective, supporters argue it is necessary to conduct research through animal experimentation. The history of animal experimentation can be traced back a very early time. The earliest references to animal testing are found in the writings of the Greeks in the 2nd and 4th centuries BCE (History of nonhuman animal research, 1984). The achievements of animal testing research cannot be ignored. For example, the Roman physician Galen dissected pigs and apes to demonstrate that veins carry blood, not air as people previously thought. In the early 1600’s English doctor William Harvey dissected numerous types of animals, including frogs and fish, to show how blood circulates the body. During the 1800s, scientists used animals to examine the role of microorganisms in causing disease (Gilland, 2002).Scientists take advantage of the animals’ biological similarity to humans to gain advanced biology and behavior knowledge. Furthermore, scientists can create controlled environments for animals (regulating their diet, temperature, and other factors) in a way that would be difficult for human research subjects. Evidence shows   the research progress benefits from animal experimentation. It cannot be denied that the animal experimentation plays a crucial role in research. However, as the scale of animal experimentations increasing drastically over years, there are more animal-rights movements and more ethics questions have come to the top. Opponents of animal experimentation consider it is unethical due to reasons such as it is cruel and inhuman, and it violates animals’ rights. Firstly, animal testing is always merciless. The condition of where animals are kept within laboratory could be poor, and animals are often exposed to harmful chemicals to see the results. In 1997, people for the Ethical Treatment of Animals filmed staff inside Huntingdon Life Sciences (HLS) in the UK. The staff was hitting puppies, shouting at them, and taking blood samples from the dogs. (â€Å"It’s A Dog’s Life,†2005). Another example is the primate experiments conducted at the University of Cambridge in 2002. The monkeys in laboratory had undergone surgery to induce a stroke, and were left alone after the procedure for 15 hours overnight. They were only given food and water for two hours a day so that researchers can better observe their reactions in different situations (Sandra, 2005). The extremely pain and suffering caused by animal testing has become a serious ethics issue. The second debatable ethics issue is regarding to animals’ rights. People have started to ask whether animals deserve the same rights as humans. According to human’s basic rights, a person may not be killed, cruelly treated, intimidated, or imprisoned for no good reason. Put another way, people should be able to live in their own needs and preferences. What about animals? Do they deserve the basic respects like humans? There is no doubt that animals experience life as humans do. Animals can feel pain and fear, and they would be desperate in difficult situations. It is true that animals do not have the same abilities as humans. They cannot speak, write or invent things, but neither can some humans. Can we deprive the rights of those humans who lack these abilities? Do we say disabled humans have no inherent value and rights? Certainly not, because their lives still has value to them. As philosopher Tom Regan (1985) has said in his argument for animal rights: we are each of us the experiencing subject of a life, a conscious creature having an individual welfare that has importance to us whatever our usefulness to others†¦ animals too must be viewed as the experiencing subjects of a life, with inherent value of their own(p.13). It is not justifiable to harm animals’ lives for the benefits of humans. Humans tend to regard themselves as the most important and valuable species on earth. However, this opinion is too self-centered and unmoral. Millions of species are all living on this planet, and they all deserve the dignity to live. Even though there is no doubt that better research progress would be gained from animal testing, we human cannot take the benefits from the misfortune of other species. We are part of this planet, and we have the obligation to protect ecological balance, not to harm it. Supporters of animal experimentation are also aware of the defects and ethical problems of animal experimentation, but they assert there are no effective alternatives to animal testing. As a matter of fact, with the development of technology, there are many more possibilities to conduct experimentations without animals. Thanks to modern technology, more and more non-animal research is being used now all over the world. For example, Pharmagene Laboratories is the first company to use only human tissues and sophisticated computer technology for the purpose of drug development and testing. People in Pharmagene use sophisticated scanning devices to analyze inner structure of human. With tools from biochemistry, analytical pharmacology, and molecular biology, Pharmagene is able to study human genes and drug effects on the proteins they make. They have made great achievements in the field of non-animal experimentation. Besides, the scientists in Pharmagene believe that the study process would be much more efficient with human tissues instead of animals’. They also state there would be lower risk associated with non-animal experimentation. (Coghlan,1996). As I pointed out before, animal testing can be inconclusive and inaccurate. Also, it is usually expensive to do experiments on animals. On the contrary, non-animal methods often take less time and cost less to conduct. Effective, affordable, and humane research methods include sophisticated in vitro, genomic, and computer-modeling techniques as well as studies of human populations, volunteers, and patients. Why do we have to conduct the cruel, immoral animal testing which cost us money and effort? People c an use these effective alternatives instead. Today, animal experimentations are still used widespread in areas of biology, behavior study, medical research, and drug testing. Although supporters of animal experimentations argue that animal testing is beneficial for human health, critical for research purposes, there are strong evidence showing that animal experimentation might not be necessary. Animal experimentation can cause a lot of dangerous side effects in drug testing. Moreover, People’s diseases cannot be accurately treated through animal experimentation. Also, there are serious moral issues associated with animal testing, and we should not take the benefits from the misfortune of other species. People need to be aware of the disadvantages of animal testing and seek for better alternatives. Non-animal methods often take less time and cost less to conduct. With the development of technology, there would be more and more effective alternatives to animal testing. Due to the various disadvantages of animal experimenta tion, we ought to abandon animal testing and focus on better solutions. I believe humans can benefit more from non-animal experimentations References Animal Experimentation.(2011). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Balls, M. Statement on the Application of the Epidermâ„ ¢ Human Skin Model for Skin Corrosivity Testing. New York, NY: Metropolitan. Cohen, C. (2001). The Animal Rights Debate. Lanham, MD: Rowman. Coghlan, A, (1996). Pioneers Cut Out Animal Testing. New Scientist, 9, 31-33. Deborah, L. (2009). Novel Multicellular Organotypic Models of Normal and Malignant Breast: Tools for Dissecting the Role of Microenvironmen in Breast Cancer Progression. Breast Cancer Research, 11, p.3. Festing, S. (2008). Animal Research—a Defense. Retrieved from http://www. Newstatesman.con/life-and-society/2008/03/animal-rights-debate. Gilland, T. (2002). Animal Experimentation: Good or Bad? London: Hodder. It’s a Dog’s Life. (2005). Small World Productions, pp. 54, 56. Laboratory Primate Advocacy Group. (1984). History of nonhuman animal Research. Boston, MA: Bedford. Regan, T. (1985). The Case for animal rights. New York: Basil Blackwell. Sandra, L.(2005). Lab monkeys in tests. The Grardian. p. R3. Singer, P. (2006). In Defense of Animals: The Second Wave. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Thomas, P.(2008). Animal Testing—Dangerous to Human Health. Retrieved From http://www.newstatesman/life-and-society/2008/animal-right

Cloning Essay -- Biology, Stem Cells, Asexual Reproduction

Abstract: The rate of using cloning is rapidly increasing. Cloning of different species is a beneficial process, but also has limitations as it can be hazardous and harmful to our society. Cloning is the process in which multiple identical copies of an entire entity are made. An example is the cloning of stem cells which provide identical replicas that can be used to help an injured human. This study compares the favourable and negative outcomes of cloning different organisms, from a scientific perspective without getting into the ethics and religious views. As well, this paper discusses whether or not cloning is considered suitable for society and under what circumstances that this pertains. Through scientific research and background knowledge, many facts are produced about the affects of cloning plants, animals and people. After weighing out both sides of this process in each circumstance, it can be concluded that the cloning of plants, animals, and humans can be beneficial, but it needs to be kept to a minimum to limit the chance of having a uniform society. Cloning of different species is a beneficial process, yet it has its limitations as it can be hazardous and harmful to society. Cloning is the process of asexual reproduction of an entire entity, in which multiple, identical genetic copies are created. According to Webster`s Online Dictionary, â€Å"cloning is the process of producing a clone†, and a clone is â€Å"a cell, cell product, or organism that is genetically identical to the unit or individual from which it was derived.† While one may take an ethical approach to determine whether or not cloning should be allowed, this study is based solely on scientific facts and evidence. Cloning can be done on plants, animals and hum... ...ning and experimenting. The benefits and problems of cloning tend to make a cycle. For example, if scientists continue to genetically clone species that help in the medicinal field, then this would cause people to live unnaturally long. The issue of extreme overcrowding would arise, and scientists would have to clone or grow more crops to provide an adequate amount of food for everyone, thus leading to more possible environmental damage. Cloning has been proven to be useful to society; however there are many risks that come with it. This process needs to be analyzed in more depth in each circumstance, to determine the long term effects, before moving forward with the use of cloning on a global scale. Cloning is a beneficial process to our society; however certain forms of human cloning are unacceptable at this time, due to our inability to predict consequences.

Case Study on Pneumonia

Case Study: Pneumonia and Pressure Ulcer Prevention in an Elderly MICU Patient June 6, 2012 Case Study: Pneumonia and Sepsis in an Elderly MICU Patient L. M. is a 75-year-old female who suffers from severe dementia and lives in a SNF. She was diagnosed with lung cancer in 2005 and as a result had a right upper and middle lobectomy. She also has a history of severe emphysema. L. M. has had several pneumonic infections and has an allergy to Pneumovax. She has a recurrent aspiration risk and received a tracheostomy and a PEG tube in January 2012. On Aril 25, 2012, L.M. was found to be increasingly fatigued, somnolent, and had shortness of breath accompanied with tachycardia as witnessed by the staff at the SNF. When she arrived at the emergency department, she was tachycardic with a heart rate in the 130-140’s and tachypnic with a respiration rate in the 30-40’s. L. M. , who normally depends on 2 liters of oxygen at home, desaturated to 88% requiring oxygen support increas ed to 4 liters. Her baseline systolic blood pressure is 100-110 and it was measured in the low 90’s in the ED. She also had an increased temperature of 38. degrees Celsius. As a result of L. M. ’s increase in temperature, heart rate, and respiratory rate accompanied with pneumonia, the emergency department treated her for sepsis. Labs drawn showed an increase in white blood cells and lactic acid, as well as an increase in PC02 and a decrease in PO2. She was aggressively resuscitated with IV boluses as necessary followed by maintenance normal saline. She was also administered Vancomycin, Cefepime, Azithromycin, and Metronidazole. In addition, her chest x-ray illustrated a near complete opacification of the right lung field.She was diagnosed with sepsis secondary to pneumonia complicated by a right lower lung collapse due to mucus plugging. I assumed care of L. M. in the MICU ten days after her admission in the ED. She had been intubated and put on a mechanical ventilato r. She was put on pressure support mode at a rate of 10, PEEP of 5, Fi02 of 40%, and her tidal volumes averaged around 230. She had three bronchoscopies, however, there was still evidence of mucous plugs and L. M. was unable to clear lung secretions. Respiratory therapy attempted to decrease the pressure support on the ventilator but L.M. showed increased signs of respiratory distress. At the point that I took over care for the patient, my goals were: prevent aspiration and further spread of infection and improve ventilation and perfusion. Interventions for my patient to prevent aspirations and decrease risk of further infection included suction contaminated secretions, raise the head of the bed, and use of Chlorexidine wash. Protocol for suctioning an intubated patient in the MICU is every 4 hours or more frequently if necessary depending on the patient. L. M. ad a history of recurrent aspirations and was at risk for increased infection because she was on a ventilator. â€Å"Closu re of the glottis prevents aspiration of oropharyngeal secretions. When a patient is intubated with an endotracheal tube, the glottis remains open, leaving only the inflated cuff for protection against aspiration (Bennett, Bertrand, Penoyer, Sole & Talbert, 2011). † Therefore, routine suctioning helps to eliminate the pooling of secretions above the cuff of the endotracheal tube, where aspiration is most likely to occur.In addition, raising the head of the bed to 30-45 degrees decreases aspiration and the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia. â€Å"The single most cost-free intervention found to reduce the incidence of VAP is elevation of the HOB (Stonecypher, 2010). † Although my patient was already diagnosed with pneumonia, it was important to prevent the spread of the infection to the healthy portion of her lungs or have a recurrence of sepsis. Chlorehexidine is an antiseptic that has been proven to inhibit dental plaque formation and gingivitis.I swabbed my patie nt’s mouth with Chlorhexidine once a shift as a protocol in her plan of care. The use of an antiseptic solution helps to decrease the amount of bacteria in the oral mucosa and thus prevents the colonization of bacteria in the respiratory tract (Institute for Healthcare Improvement, 2012). Another important intervention was to maintain the head of the bed at 30-45 degrees and position L. M. ’s left lung into a dependent position to improve ventilation and perfusion. L. M. ’s O2 was decreased to 63 and her CO2 was increased to 50.According to the IHI, it is recommended to elevate the bed to 30- 45 degrees to improve ventilation. Patients that lay in the supine position have lower spontaneous tidal volumes on pressure support ventilation compared to those laying at more of an angle (Institute for Healthcare Improvement, 2012). In regards to positioning, when the least damaged portion of the lung is placed in a dependent position it receives preferential blood flow. This redistribution of blood flow helps match ventilation and perfusion, therefore, improving gas exchange (Lough, Stacy & Urden, 2010).Implementing these interventions combined with respiratory therapy, significantly improved the blood gas values for oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. â€Å"Pressure ulcers are key clinical indicators of the standard and effectiveness of care (Elliott, Fox & McKinley, 2008). † L. M. was at high risk for pressure ulcers for multiple factors such as immobility, poor nutrition, age, and health. Therefore, I used the Braden Scale as a quality indicator in order to assess the risk of pressure ulcers and also to initiate prevention.The Braden Scale assesses pressure sore risks by examining certain criteria: sensory perception, moisture, activity, mobility, nutrition, and fiction and shear. Each category is rated on a scale of 1-4, with the exception of the friction and shear category that is rated on a scale of 1-3. There is a possible score of 23. If a patient has a higher score, they are less susceptible to development of a pressure ulcer and vice versa. In the category of sensory perception, I rated L. M. at a 2 because she only responded to painful stimuli but could not communicate discomfort with the exception of restlessness.I scored her at a 2 in the moisture criteria because she was often diaphoretic because of increased heart rate, increased respirations, and her linens had to be changed once a shift. In terms of activity, she was a 1 because she was confined to a bed both at the hospital and at the SNF she lived in. L. M. was very limited in her mobility and would only make occasional slight changes in her body position; therefore, I assessed her to be a 2. I rated her nutrition at a 2 because she weighed 84 pounds and was on tube feeding that seemed inadequate o meet her nutritional needs. In the last category, friction and shear, I gave her a 1 since she required maximum assistance in moving. She would frequently slide down in her hospital bed and required frequent repositioning. L. M. ’s cumulative score was a 10, which is considered a high risk for developing a pressure ulcer. â€Å"Prevention of pressure ulcers is a fundamental aspect of intensive care nursing, and quality improvement methods are arguably the most cost-effective and intuitive approach to addressing this potentially serious problem (Elliott, Fox & McKinley, 2008). One of the interventions I implemented in order to prevent pressure ulcers in my patient was the use of support surfaces. The use of a pressure-redistributing mattress and pillow supports under bony prominences, assist in relieving pressure that the patient’s body weight has on the skin when lying in bed for a pro-longed amount of time. If the pressure is not alleviated it can lead to impaired circulation, damage to the skin, and eventually tissue death (Gill, Reddy & Ronchon, 2006).In order to further promote patient care, it is necessary to educa te the patient, family, and/or caregivers. There are several different factors that could help to ensure a better quality of life for L. M. Consistent trach care and good oral hygiene can reduce the risk of bacteria entering the airways and causing recurrent respiratory infections. It is important for L. M. to maintain an elevation of the head of the bed to prevent aspiration and improve ventilation. Furthermore, frequent repositioning and the use of supportive devices is imperative to maintain skin integrity.It will also be crucial to monitor L. M. ’s vital signs to be able to recognize a recurrence of pneumonia or sepsis. References Bennett, M. , Bertrand, M. , Penoyer, D. A. , Sole, M. L. , & Talbert, S. (2011). Oropharyngeal secretion volume in intubated patients: The importance of oral suctioning. American Hournal of Critical Care, 20(6), 141-145. Elliott, R. , Fox, V. , & McKinley, S. (2008). Quality improvement program to reduce the prevalence of pressure ulcers in an intesive care unit. American Journal of Critical Care, 17(4), 328-334.Retrieved from http://ajcc. aacnjournals. org/content/17/4/328. full Gill, S. S. , Reddy, M. , & Ronchon, P. A. (2006). Preventing pressure ulcers: A systematic review. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 296(8), Retrieved from http://jama. jamanetwork. com/article. aspx? volume=296&issue=8&page=974 Institute for Healthcare Improvement. (2012). Ihi ventilator bundle: Daily oral care with chlorhexidine. Institute for Healthcare Improvement, Retrieved from http://www. ihi. org/knowledge/Pages/Changes/DailyOralCarewithChlorhexidine. spx Institute for Healthcare Improvement. (2012). Ihi ventilator bundle: Elevation of the head of the bed. Institute for Healthcare Improvement, Retrieved from http://www. ihi. org/knowledge/Pages/Changes/ElevationoftheHeadoftheBed. aspx Lough, M. E. , Stacy, K. M. , & Urden, L. D. (2010). Critical care nursing. St. Louis, MO: Mosby Elsevier. Stonecypher, K. (2010). Ventilato r-associated pneumonia: The importance of oral care in intubated adults. Crtitical Care Nursing Quarterly, 33(4), 339-347.

The Devil And Evil s Influence On The Scarlet Letter

Jaren Jackson Mr. Martin 17 September 2014 The Devil and Evil’s Influence in the Scarlet Letter In the Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne makes many references to the devil and evil’s influence on major characters and on the people in the town. The major characters change the way they act towards one another, and are physically and mentally affected negatively. The evil influence not only affects how the people in the town act towards each other but if affects how different people view the scarlet letter that Hester wears. Hawthorne also tries to convince the reader that Pearl’s existence is evil, but good things can come from evil as well as bad. By describing these instances Hawthorne drives the point that the devil and evil overtime are prominent themes and shape the plot. Throughout the story Roger Chillingworth slowly transforms and is comparable to the devil. There are phases to this transformation. The fact we learn Chillingworth trapped Hester in a marriage that she did not want be in shows that his evil transformation starts when we are first introduced to him. Later in this next phase, he uses his hatred and devotion to bring pain on Dimmesdale for seven years. Over the seven years, Chillingworth devotes his time to torment Dimmesdale with no remorse or compassion. While Dimmesdale and Hester had committed a high sin in Puritan life, Chillingworth’s conduct proves to be the greater evil. Hester and the â€Å"A† transition in the opposite direction. She was branded aShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Scarlet Letter 972 Words   |  4 PagesAnalysis of The Black Man In The Scarlet Letter Symbolism is the practice of representing things by symbols, or of investing things with a symbolic meaning or character. In the novel â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†, by Nathaniel Hawthorne, symbolism is the main feature of the story. 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